Intelligence on both sides was faulty, and Alexander was already encamped by Myriandrus (near modern İskenderun, Turkey) when he learned that Darius was astride his line of communications at Issus, north of Alexander’s position (autumn 333). Leaving Porus, he then proceeded down the river and into the Indus, with half his forces on shipboard and half marching in three columns down the two banks. In spring 326, crossing the Indus near Attock, Alexander entered Taxila, whose ruler, Taxiles, furnished elephants and troops in return for aid against his rival Porus, who ruled the lands between the Hydaspes (modern Jhelum) and the Acesines (modern Chenāb). In midsummer 330 Alexander set out for the eastern provinces at a high speed via Rhagae (modern Rayy, near Tehrān) and the Caspian Gates, where he learned that Bessus, the satrap of Bactria, had deposed Darius. Philip reformed the … After taking Byblos (modern Jubayl) and Sidon (Arabic Ṣaydā), he met with a check at Tyre, where he was refused entry into the island city. Code of Ethics. OK, there was no such thing as high school in the fourth … Left in charge of Macedonia in 340 during Philip’s attack on Byzantium, Alexander defeated the Maedi, a Thracian people. His parents were Philip II of Macedon and his wife Olympias. Crossing the Elburz Mountains to the Caspian, he seized Zadracarta in Hyrcania and received the submission of a group of satraps and Persian notables, some of whom he confirmed in their offices; in a diversion westward, perhaps to modern Āmol, he reduced the Mardi, a mountain people who inhabited the Elburz Mountains. … I could manage this horse better than others do. Between 326 and 324 over a third of his satraps were superseded and six were put to death, including the Persian satraps of Persis, Susiana, Carmania, and Paraetacene; three generals in Media, including Cleander, the brother of Coenus (who had died a little earlier), were accused of extortion and summoned to Carmania, where they were arrested, tried, and executed. The decisive battle of the war was fought on October 31, on the plain of Gaugamela between Nineveh and Arbela. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. How much Alexander knew of India beyond the Hyphasis (probably the modern Beas) is uncertain; there is no conclusive proof that he had heard of the Ganges. The Persian plan to tempt Alexander across the river and kill him in the melee almost succeeded; but the Persian line broke, and Alexander’s victory was complete. His conquest of Egypt had completed his control of the whole eastern Mediterranean coast. in Pella, Macedonia, to King Philip II. Alexander was 32 when he died in 323 B.C.E. As Mazaeus’s appointment indicated, Alexander’s views on the empire were changing. In 2019, Dr. Katherine Hall of New Zealand’s University of Otago presented the … Author of. He is also said to have sent an expedition to discover the causes of the flooding of the Nile. For a long time his mind had dwelt on ideas of godhead. With a good cavalry force Alexander could expect to defeat any Persian army. No heir had been appointed to the throne, and his generals adopted Philip II’s half-witted illegitimate son, Philip Arrhidaeus, and Alexander’s posthumous son by Roxana, Alexander IV, as kings, sharing out the satrapies among themselves, after much bargaining. As a young boy, Alexander was taught to read, write, and play the lyre. Alexander the Great Alexander was born in July 356 B.C. Two years later he commanded the left wing at the Battle of Chaeronea, in which Philip defeated the allied Greek states, and displayed personal courage in breaking the Sacred Band of Thebes, an elite military corps composed of 150 pairs of lovers. Alexander included botanists and scientists in his army to study the lands he conquered. Both kings were murdered, Arrhidaeus in 317 and Alexander in 310/309. Susa, the capital, also surrendered, releasing huge treasures amounting to 50,000 gold talents; here Alexander established Darius’s family in comfort. Please select which sections you would like to print: While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. In summer 324 Alexander attempted to solve another problem, that of the wandering mercenaries, of whom there were thousands in Asia and Greece, many of them political exiles from their own cities. If you have questions about licensing content on this page, please contact [email protected] for more information and to obtain a license. Omissions? Alexander was born in 356 B.C.E. But at length, in 327 B.C., the great Greek conqueror Alexander found his way there. There is no reason to assume that his demand had any political background (divine status gave its possessor no particular rights in a Greek city); it was rather a symptom of growing megalomania and emotional instability. Both in Egypt and elsewhere in the Greek cities he received divine honours. When Alexander was a teenager, his father hired Aristotle to be his private tutor. In addition, Persian nobles had been accepted into the royal cavalry bodyguard. Crossing the Hindu Kush northward over the Khawak Pass (11,650 feet [3,550 metres]), Alexander brought his army, despite food shortages, to Drapsaca (sometimes identified with modern Banu [Andarab], probably farther north at Qunduz); outflanked, Bessus fled beyond the Oxus (modern Amu Darya), and Alexander, marching west to Bactra-Zariaspa (modern Balkh [Wazirabad] in Afghanistan), appointed loyal satraps in Bactria and Aria. Alexander the Great, also known as Alexander III or Alexander of Macedonia is known as one of the greatest generals in all history. If a media asset is downloadable, a download button appears in the corner of the media viewer. Darius’s Greek mercenaries were largely massacred, but 2,000 survivors were sent back to Macedonia in chains. He developed a life-long love of reading and music. After visiting Ilium (Troy), a romantic gesture inspired by Homer, he confronted his first Persian army, led by three satraps, at the Granicus (modern Kocabaş) River, near the Sea of Marmara (May/June 334). Alexander the Great, also known as Alexander III or Alexander of Macedonia is known as one of the greatest generals in all history. Join our community of educators and receive the latest information on National Geographic's resources for you and your students. Darius’s death left no obstacle to Alexander’s claim to be Great King, and a Rhodian inscription of this year (330) calls him “lord of Asia”—i.e., of the Persian empire; soon afterward his Asian coins carry the title of king. His post of chiliarch (grand vizier) was left unfilled. If no button appears, you cannot download or save the media. Alexander now occupied Babylon, city and province; Mazaeus, who surrendered it, was confirmed as satrap in conjunction with a Macedonian troop commander, and quite exceptionally was granted the right to coin. This miniseries explores the legacy of Alexander the Great. The army was accompanied by surveyors, engineers, architects, scientists, court officials, and historians; from the outset Alexander seems to have envisaged an unlimited operation. If Plutarch’s figure of 120,000 men has any reality, however, it must include all kinds of auxiliary services, together with muleteers, camel drivers, medical corps, peddlers, entertainers, women, and children; the fighting strength perhaps stood at about 35,000. This policy of racial fusion brought increasing friction to Alexander’s relations with his Macedonians, who had no sympathy for his changed concept of the empire. From Maracanda (modern Samarkand) Alexander advanced by way of Cyropolis to the Jaxartes (modern Syrdarya), the boundary of the Persian empire. Alexander’s second in command was Parmenio, who had secured a foothold in Asia Minor during Philip’s lifetime; many of his family and supporters were entrenched in positions of responsibility. As a teenager, Alexander became known for his exploits on the battlefield. highest rank of leadership in armies and air forces. In spring 324 he was back in Susa, capital of Elam and administrative centre of the Persian empire; the story of his journey through Carmania in a drunken revel, dressed as Dionysus, is embroidered, if not wholly apocryphal. Alexander the Great was an ancient Macedonian ruler and one of history’s greatest military minds who, as King of Macedonia and Persia, established the … Nevertheless, King Philip II of Macedon was one of Alexander's most influential role models, said Abernethy. At Gordium in Phrygia, tradition records his cutting of the Gordian knot, which could only be loosed by the man who was to rule Asia; but this story may be apocryphal or at least distorted. In autumn 324 Hephaestion died in Ecbatana, and Alexander indulged in extravagant mourning for his closest friend; he was given a royal funeral in Babylon with a pyre costing 10,000 talents. to 323 B.C. Alexander’s most telling tribute: he cut his hair short in mourning, this last a poignant reminder of Achilles' last gift to Patroclus on his funeral pyre. 1145 17th Street NW Alexander the Great became a legend 'mongst mortal men!" In 336 B.C.E., at age 20, Alexander became king of Macedonia when a political rival assassinated his father. In June Alexander fought his last great battle on the left bank of the Hydaspes. Conqueror and king of Macedonia, Alexander the Great was born on July 20, 356 B.C., in Pella, in the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia. When you reach out to him or her, you will need the page title, URL, and the date you accessed the resource. Use the videos, media, reference materials, and other resources in this collection to teach about ancient Greece, its role in modern-day democracy, and civic engagement. Craterus, a high-ranking officer, already had been sent off with the baggage and siege train, the elephants, and the sick and wounded, together with three battalions of the phalanx, by way of the Mulla Pass, Quetta, and Kandahar into the Helmand Valley; from there he was to march through Drangiana to rejoin the main army on the Amanis (modern Minab) River in Carmania. This discontent was now fanned by the arrival of 30,000 native youths who had received a Macedonian military training and by the introduction of Asian peoples from Bactria, Sogdiana, Arachosia, and other parts of the empire into the Companion cavalry; whether Asians had previously served with the Companions is uncertain, but if so they must have formed separate squadrons. Turning, Alexander found Darius drawn up along the Pinarus River. Alexander sent his body for burial with due honours in the royal tombs at Persepolis. In Aria he reduced Satibarzanes, who had offered submission only to revolt, and he founded Alexandria of the Arians (modern Herāt). In early summer 327 Alexander left Bactria with a reinforced army under a reorganized command. The fleet was commanded by Nearchus, and Alexander’s own captain was Onesicritus; both later wrote accounts of the campaign. He murdered Cleitus, one of his most-trusted commanders, in a drunken quarrel, but his excessive display of remorse led the army to pass a decree convicting Cleitus posthumously of treason. Alexander was the son of the King of Macedon, Philip II and his fourth wife Olympias. Greek thought drew no very decided line of demarcation between god and man, for legend offered more than one example of men who, by their achievements, acquired divine status. Representatives of the cities of Greece also came, garlanded as befitted Alexander’s divine status. Even Callisthenes, historian and nephew of Aristotle, whose ostentatious flattery had perhaps encouraged Alexander to see himself in the role of a god, refused to abase himself. Alexander the Great became king of Macedon in 336 BC, when he was only 20 years old, and died at the age of 32, twelve years later. In the 2,000 years after his early death, his influence has persisted, military leaders from Caesar to Napoleon studied his … Alexander had on several occasions encouraged favourable comparison of his own accomplishments with those of Dionysus or Heracles. After Alexander. The exploits of the Ten Thousand, Greek soldiers of fortune, and of Agesilaus of Sparta, in successfully campaigning in Persian territory had revealed the vulnerability of the Persian empire. “I would accept,” Parmenio is reported to have said, “were I Alexander”; “I too,” was the famous retort, “were I Parmenio.” The storming of Tyre in July 332 was Alexander’s greatest military achievement; it was attended with great carnage and the sale of the women and children into slavery. Hugely ambitious, Alexander drew inspiration from the gods Achilles, Heracles, and Dionysus. He also accepted the surrender of Darius’s Greek mercenaries. On his reaching the oracle in its oasis, the priest gave him the traditional salutation of a pharaoh, as son of Amon; Alexander consulted the god on the success of his expedition but revealed the reply to no one. Due to the limited nature of the information we have about ancient Egypt, the historical figures that we call key is a more limited group than it would be in contemporary times. "Alexander the Great, his name struck fear into hearts of men! Updates? His vast empire stretched east into India. His body, diverted to Egypt by Ptolemy, the later king, was eventually placed in a golden coffin in Alexandria. This ruthless action excited widespread horror but strengthened Alexander’s position relative to his critics and those whom he regarded as his father’s men. If you have questions about how to cite anything on our website in your project or classroom presentation, please contact your teacher. He had come to envisage a joint ruling people consisting of Macedonians and Persians, and this served to augment the misunderstanding that now arose between him and his people. At the age of thirteen, he was sent to study with Aristotle–an education that … Alexander pursued the defeated Persian forces for 35 miles to Arbela, but Darius escaped with his Bactrian cavalry and Greek mercenaries into Media. But he was anxious to press on farther, and he had advanced to the Hyphasis when his army mutinied, refusing to go farther in the tropical rain; they were weary in body and spirit, and Coenus, one of Alexander’s four chief marshals, acted as their spokesman. Any interactives on this page can only be played while you are visiting our website. There was much speculation about the cause of death, and the most popular theories claim that he either contracted malaria or typhoid fever or that he was poisoned. “I am not afraid of an army of lions led by a sheep; I am afraid of an army of sheep led by a lion.” ― … “Alexander was one of histories great commanders; he was absolutely brilliant on the battlefield.” –Barry Strauss. The people welcomed him as their deliverer, and the Persian satrap Mazaces wisely surrendered. Alexander the Great, King of Macedon from 336 - 323 B.C., may claim the title of the greatest military leader the world has ever known. Alexander the Great became king of Macedonia at age 19. An emotional scene of reconciliation was followed by a vast banquet with 9,000 guests to celebrate the ending of the misunderstanding and the partnership in government of Macedonians and Persians—but not, as has been argued, the incorporation of all the subject peoples as partners in the commonwealth. Returning to Macedonia by way of Delphi (where the Pythian priestess acclaimed him “invincible”), he advanced into Thrace in spring 335 and, after forcing the Shipka Pass and crushing the Triballi, crossed the Danube to disperse the Getae; turning west, he then defeated and shattered a coalition of Illyrians who had invaded Macedonia. Recrossing the Hindu Kush, probably by Bamiyan and the Ghorband Valley, Alexander divided his forces. The other Greek states were cowed by this severity, and Alexander could afford to treat Athens leniently. Leaving Parmenio in Syria, Alexander advanced south without opposition until he reached Gaza on its high mound; there bitter resistance halted him for two months, and he sustained a serious shoulder wound during a sortie. The phalanx – a rectangular … A decree brought by Nicanor to Europe and proclaimed at Olympia (September 324) required the Greek cities of the Greek League to receive back all exiles and their families (except the Thebans), a measure that implied some modification of the oligarchic regimes maintained in the Greek cities by Alexander’s governor Antipater. On the Hyphasis he erected 12 altars to the 12 Olympian gods, and on the Hydaspes he built a fleet of 800 to 1,000 ships. Crushing the mountain tribe of the Ouxians, he now pressed on over the Zagros range into Persia proper and, successfully turning the Pass of the Persian Gates, held by the satrap Ariobarzanes, he entered Persepolis and Pasargadae. Alexander the Great's conquests freed the West from the menace of Persian rule and spread Greek civilization and culture into Asia and Egypt. He spent most of his reign on a military campaign through northeast Africa and southwestern Asia. After a skirmish near modern Shāhrūd, the usurper had Darius stabbed and left him to die. In July 331 Alexander was at Thapsacus on the Euphrates. The virtues of war is a novel on Alexander The Great produced by Stephen press field. Alexander the Great, a Macedonian king, conquered the eastern Mediterranean, Egypt, the Middle East, and parts of Asia in a remarkably short period of time. One of the world’s greatest military generals, he created a vast empire that stretched from Macedonia to Egypt and from Greece to part of India. Many historians also think Alexander had heterochromia—one eye was brown, the other blue. In reconciliation Alexander married her, and the rest of his opponents were either won over or crushed. His father, Philip, was interested in cultivating a refined future king and so hired Lysimachus of Acarnania to teach the boy reading, writing, and to play the lyre. He found that his treasurer, Harpalus, evidently fearing punishment for peculation, had absconded with 6,000 mercenaries and 5,000 talents to Greece; arrested in Athens, he escaped and later was murdered in Crete. You cannot download interactives. In 336, however, on Philip’s assassination, Alexander, acclaimed by the army, succeeded without opposition. In the battle that followed, Alexander won a decisive victory. By most accounts, he was short and stocky. From Phrada, Alexander pressed on during the winter of 330–329 up the valley of the Helmand River, through Arachosia, and over the mountains past the site of modern Kābul into the country of the Paropamisadae, where he founded Alexandria by the Caucasus. From age 13 to 16 he was taught by Aristotle, who inspired him with an interest in philosophy, medicine, and scientific investigation, but he was later to advance beyond his teacher’s narrow precept that non-Greeks should be treated as slaves. He also dispatched Heracleides, an officer, to explore the Hyrcanian (i.e., Caspian) Sea. Rathbone Professor Emeritus of Ancient History and Classical Archaeology, University of Liverpool. In the meantime (winter 333–332) the Persians had counterattacked by land in Asia Minor—where they were defeated by Antigonus, the satrap of Greater Phrygia—and by sea, recapturing a number of cities and islands. The parents were far from a happy couple, and Alexander was raised primarily under the influence of his mother. His conquest continued through Asia until he reached the shores of the Ganga (Ganges) River in India. Detail of Alexander and Bucephalus, (1859-61) by Edgar Degas, in National Gallery of Art, Washington. Alexander gave orders that the sacred flame in the temple should be extinguished, something that was only done on the death of a Great King. The march was attended with much fighting and heavy, pitiless slaughter; at the storming of one town of the Malli near the Hydraotes (Ravi) River, Alexander received a severe wound which left him weakened. The tyrants were expelled and (in contrast to Macedonian policy in Greece) democracies were installed. It took Alexander until the autumn of 328 to crush the most determined opponent he encountered in his campaigns. Alexander was the son of King Philip II … She or he will best know the preferred format. Following up Nearchus’s voyage, he now founded an Alexandria at the mouth of the Tigris and made plans to develop sea communications with India, for which an expedition along the Arabian coast was to be a preliminary. Parmenio was also left behind in Media to control communications; the presence of this older man had perhaps become irksome. We meet the Macedonian prince who was naturally inquisitive and fascinated by science and exploration, as well as the man who enjoyed the arts and used Homer’s great epic the Iliad as a bible. Alexander now planned to recall Antipater and supersede him by Craterus, but he was to die before this could be done. He at once executed the princes of Lyncestis, alleged to be behind Philip’s murder, along with all possible rivals and the whole of the faction opposed to him. While he could be ruthless and impulsive, Alexander was also charismatic and sensible. Alexander was the son of Philip II and Olympias (daughter of King Neoptolemus of Epirus). Bessus was captured, flogged, and sent to Bactra, where he was later mutilated after the Persian manner (losing his nose and ears); in due course he was publicly executed at Ecbatana. This is precisely what happened to Alexander's kingdom. to murder someone of political importance. 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